The Monstrous agency: the social life of the Icelandic restless dead

Résumé

Image from the Articles section: Draugen, Theodor Kittelsen, oil on canvas, 1895. MutualArt, 2025.

Abstract: In Icelandic sagas, the actions and behaviours of the aptrgangr (undead "after-goer") reveal complex relationships between identity, monstrosity, and society, challenging the simplistic notion that monsters exist entirely outside of humanity. I argue that while certain circumstances influence one's transformation into an undead being marked by aggression, this change is further complicated by factors such as kinship ties, aspirations to power, and even the preservation of honour. The aptrgangr, often emerges from a history of violating social norms, which fuels their monstrous return. However, the saga evidence suggests that monstrosity is not solely the result of the undead state but is deeply rooted in the individual's societal interactions. In Eyrbyggja saga Arnkell’s quick response to his father Thorolf’s undead state temporarily halts the potential for destruction, highlighting the lingering influence of Thorolf’s desires for status symbols he lacked in life. Similarly, in Svarfdæla saga, Klaufi’s posthumous vengeance spree is driven by a need to restore his honour after being killed by his wife, suggesting that his monstrous behaviour is an extension of his human concerns. In the Vínland sagas, revenants domesticated by Christian faith serve to underline social rules. Such figures occupy a liminal space suggesting that their monstrosity is not merely a result of their undead state but is also rooted in their complex socio-cultural perception.